Study in Learners' psychology

Motivating Students in Classroom: a Perspective of Directing the extrinsic motivation into intrinsic

by: Sandi Ferdiansyah

Abstract

Children are obviously not blank sheets that parents or teachers can write anything on them. It is essential for parents or teachers to be wise and fully understand that they grow up and be what they want to be with their own potencies. It is a fatal error that mostly parents or teachers direct them without knowing much what they actually need. So that, the children sometimes break loose and in particular blame their parents because they do not have any chances to tell and show their talents and interests. Furthermore, at school, they are less motivated so that they do not enjoy studying. In the classroom, the students who have lack of motivation tend to talk much with their desk mate rather than paying attention to the teacher’s explanation and get involved in the classroom activities. A mishandling towards such students’ behavior will likely put themselves into a permanent dislike of learning. This is not absolutely expected by anyone who concern to the students’ future as the next generation. In hence, understanding the students’ need is essential as the foundation to build their confident and self-esteem. Therefore, it is not more than just a direction that is expected by the students but also a motivation or support either form their parents or their teachers.

Key words: motivation, extrinsic and intrinsic motivation, motivating students in classroom

Learn and learning theories

Before going on the discussion about how to motivate students specifically in classroom, for teachers especially, it is better to discuss what is meant by learn and the theories of learning. To learn means to acquire knowledge, information, or experience. In hence, according to Gage (1984) in Dahar (1988:12) to learn is a process in which an organism can change its attitude as the impact of the experience. It is supported by Baharuddin (2010:162) who states that to learn means an activity done by someone to get a change through practices and experiences. It can simply means that a child is educated to get a better change on his or her life, i.e. unknowing becomes knowing or being unable becomes able through the practices that he or she has done and experiences that he or she has got which then transformed as a knowledge.

Gage (1984) in Dahar (1988:15-21) classifies five learning forms, they are briefly described as follow:

1. Responsive learning

The theory of responsive learning was actually proposed by a well-known Russian Psychologist named Ivan Pavlov. In this learning form, a response is issued by a stimulus that has been known. Pavlov observed that a dog would get a small effect of spitting when the light was on. Then, the dog was given some meat powder which made it spit. The lamp was lighted right before giving the meat powder. After some time, the dog spitted even the light was on. The theory of responsive learning happens in real life. Dahar (1988:17) figures out that when a child is on the first day of school he or she perhaps becomes afraid after he or she gets unfriendly welcome from his or her teachers and friends. It of course induces the negative stimulus towards that him or her and that makes him or her afraid or going to school.

2. Contiguous learning

Some scientists claim that the relationship between unconditional stimulus and response is not necessary. A simple close association (contiguous) between a stimulus and response can result a change on one’s attitude. Or simply it can be said that a man can change as a result of experiencing a pairing events. For an instance: the students are asked to fill the following problems: four times four equals….; Oprah Winfrey is a…… ; Nill river is in…… etc. the answers sixteen; a smart woman; India show that one can learn because of close event that happen in the same time.

3. Operant learning

In operant learning, reinforcement is the key word. It plays an important role in changing one’s attitude. Slavin (1988) in Dahar (1988:19) says that the reinforcement refers to a consequence that empowers one’s attitude.

4. Observational learning

The concept of the observational learning is that someone can learn by observing someone else what he or she can do. For an example, observing someone who has a good manner and attitude will make the learner change his or her as a learner with a good personality.

5. Cognitive learning

Cognitive learning is very much different with those four learning forms. It fully concerns on mental process. This kind of learning focuses on how brain keeps the information and then how it is used to carry out the problem.

The five principles of learning theories which have been described above represent the thoughts of how human learns, makes up their knowledge, and maximizes the potencies. Therefore, it is clear that a student obtains knowledge differently with others in terms of the learning style, as Reid (1995, p. viii), quoted by Dornyei (2005:121) states that the standard definition, they refer to “an individual’s natural, habitual, and preferred way(s) of absorbing, processing, and retaining new information and skills”. Next, the learning style impacts on how the students develop the knowledge obtained into a certain application. The application depends on what skill the students have mastered. The process of developing the knowledge has put teachers as an important influence. Baharuddin (2010:165) says that the teaching learning process that is managed by teachers correlate towards the students’ learning achievement. This may imply what Piaget has already proposed after his years experience, in which he states that the intellectual development of the human in the transition phase is effected by five factors, they are maturation, physical experience, logico-mathematical experience, social transmission, and equilibration (in Philips, 1981 as quoted by Dahar (1988:188).

Motivation

According to Bandura (1977) in Dahar (1988:34) there are four phases in learning, they are attentional phase, retention phase, reproduction phase, and motivational phase. See the following figure a.

Adopted from observational learning analysis by Gage (1984) in Dahar (1988:34)

In motivational phase, students will imitate a model because they feel that they can increase the probability of the reinforcement that they will obtain (Dahar, 1988: 36). On the other hand, and Baharuddin (2010:73-74) states that motivation is one of maturation factors. The maturation is important to establish the readiness. Therefore, there is an assumption that motivation has become one of important factors that influences the students’ achievement.

Reid (2009:19) states that motivation is the key of success, meanwhile Dornyei (2005:66) states the motivation is of a great importance. Those ideas put motivation as a significant factor in students’ developmental process. According to Hornby (1995:758) to motivate means to stimulate the interest of somebody; to cause somebody to want to do something. It means that to be motivated, someone requires stimuli in order to make him himself motivated or to motivate others.

Motivation according to Brown (2007:87) can be classified into two; they are extrinsic motivation and intrinsic motivation (self-motivation). The extrinsic motivation is considered as an appreciation (Reid, 2009:19). This appreciation can come from parents at home, teachers at school, and friends as a wider environment context. Furthermore, a student deserves to get an appreciation when they suffer from learned-helplessness. Such motivation typically can be in the form of rewards and certain types of positive feedback (Brown, 2007:88). However, Reid (2009:19) argues that motivation should be intrinsic by means that the students must have self-motivation. This idea is supported by Brown (2007:89) who states that a convincing stockpile of research on motivation strongly favors intrinsic drives, especially for long term retention.

Furthermore, Edward Deci (1975, p.23) in Brown (2007:88) defines intrinsic motivation as intrinsically motivated activities are ones for which there is no apparent reward except the activity itself…intrinsically motivated behaviors are aimed at bringing about certain internally rewarding consequences, namely feelings of competence and self determination. In addition, self-motivation is built by a good mental attitude. Gie (1986:17) states that good mental attitude will enable the students to survive through the difficulties in learning. He further suggests four mental attitudes students have to establish, they are: understanding the aims of leaning, understanding the interest of learning, empowering the self-confident, and willing to be hardworking students. Therefore, it is obvious that self-motivation should be able to build belief or self-confident that the students have the ability to produce results, accomplish goals, or perform tasks competently.

Motivating the students in the classroom

There are two characteristics of students in term of motivation strength. Students with high motivation tend to perform and accomplish the tasks easier that those who are low. They have been able to manage what and how to do it even without the teacher’s direction or help. However, the students who tend to be helplessness learners are absolutely becoming the teacher’s concern. Reid (2007:20) states that not all students are motivated intrinsically and intuitively to learn. Therefore the need to be motivated and teachers should be able to develop the facility and method that is possible and easy to motivate. This is in line with Dornyei (2005:66) who states that without sufficient motivation, even individuals with the most remarkable abilities cannot accomplish long-term goals, and neither are appropriate curricula and good teaching enough on their own to ensure student achievement. Therefore, when the students have been extrinsically motivated by the teachers they are expected to be intrinsically motivated and be independent. The following is a table of how extrinsic motivation builds the intrinsic motivation which creates the students’ motivation results.

Table a. From extrinsic to intrinsic motivation in educational institution

Extrinsic pressures	Intrinsic innovations	Motivational results
School Curriculum	Learner-centered Personal goal setting Individualization	Self-esteem Self-actualization Decide for self
Parental expectations	Family solidarity Negotiated agreements	Love, intimacy Acceptance, respect for wisdom
Society’s Expectation	Security of comfortable routines Task based teaching	Community, belonging Identity, harmony Security
Tests and exams	Peer evaluation Self-diagnosis Level-check exercise	Experience Self knowledge
Immediate gratification	Set long term goals Focus on big picture Patience will reward	Experience Self-knowledge
Make money	Content-based teaching Vocational education workplace ESL, ESP	Self-actualization
Competition	Cooperative learning Group work The class is a team	Cooperation harmony
Never fail	Risk-taking, Innovation, creativity	Learn from mistakes Nobody’s perfect “c’est la vie”

Adapted from: Brown (2007:91)

A good teacher is someone who is not only able to teach or transfer the material of the lesson but also able to educate. Baharuddin (2010:200) says that a qualified teacher is a teacher who is able to understand and master the problems of teaching and educating they are the whole components that deal with the implementation during the teaching and learning process. In relation to motivation, Reid (2010:24) proposes twenty four strategies in developing motivation, they are:

1. Support the varieties of learning style
2. Support the creativity
3. Make sure the success through little steps
4. Give positive feedback to the students about their progress
5. Build the students’ belief about their own capability
6. Confess the style of each student
7. Make sure that the task is appropriate with their talent and age
8. Observe to know the students’ preference towards the study and environment
9. Focus on the task and curriculum
10. Use various teaching strategies in the classroom
11. Ensure that the learning is meaningful
12. Minimize the pressure
13. Develop group working
14. Arrange self-evaluation
15. Show the capability
16. Avoid stigma
17. Return the responsibility to the students
18. Support the students’ choice
19. Give the students responsibility
20. Focus on learning as well as teaching
21. Involve the students in decision making
22. Celebrate the success
23. Give positive feedback
24. Push the self-evaluation

In addition, prior to its application in the classroom, Brown (2007:92) suggests the following activities to be considered that capitalize on the intrinsic by appealing to learner’s self-determination and autonomy:

1. Teaching writing as a thinking process in which learners develop their ideas freely and openly
2. Showing learners strategies of reading of reading that enable them to bring their own information to the written word.
3. Language experience approaches in which students create their own reading language material for others in the class to read
4. Oral fluency exercises in which learners talk about what interests them and not about a teacher-assigned topic
5. Listening to academic lecture in one’s own field of study for specific information that will fill gap for the learner
6. Communicative language teaching, in which language is taught to enable learners to accomplish certain language function
7. Grammatical explanations a potential for increasing their autonomy in a second language.

Next, Wolters (1999) in Dornyei (2005:66) identifies eight key strategic ways in which students can regulate their motivation:

1. Self-consequating: Identifying and administering self-provided extrinsic rewards or punishments for reinforcing one’s desire to reach particular goals associated with completing an academic task. The rewards can be concrete such as buying an ice-cream or more subtle such as making self-praising verbal statements.
2. Goal-oriented self-talk: Using subvocal statements or thoughts designed to increase one’s desire to complete a task. This self-talk is similar to the self-reinforcing verbal statements mentioned above but the content goes beyond mere praises. Instead, students intensify their focus by elaborating on or making salient various reasons for persisting with the task, thereby ‘talking themselves into’ increased performance.
3. Interest enhancement: Increasing one’s intrinsic motivation by using strategies that promote the immediate enjoyment or situational interest of an activity, for example by turning the task into a game.
4. Environmental structuring: Decreasing the possibility of off-task behavior by reducing the probability of encountering distractions or reducing the intensity of distractions.
5. Self-handicapping: Manufacturing obstructions before or during a task to make the task more difficult. By doing so, students in effect create a kind of ‘win-win’ situation for themselves because if they fail, they can use the obstacle as a mitigating circumstance, and if they succeed against the odds, that put them in a particularly good light.
6. Attribution control: Causal attributions, however, can also be manipulated after task completion in a way that they positively impact motivation by the purposeful selection of causal explanations that put students in a positive light.
7. Efficacy management: Monitoring, evaluating, and purposefully controlling one’s own self-efficacy for tasks by applying one of three methods: (a) proximal goal setting—that is, breaking complex tasks into simpler and more easily completed segments, associated with straightforward, specific, and short-term goals, (b) defensive pessimism—highlighting one’s level of unpreparedness or lack of ability in order to increase anxiety that will strategically increase one’s effort to prepare, and (c) efficacy self-talk—engaging in thoughts or subvocal statements, such as “You can do it!” to increase one’s perceived self-efficacy.
8. Emotion regulation: Regulating one’s emotional experience in a constructive way, for example by reducing negative affective response or using wishful thinking.

The three ideas of arousing the students’ motivation in learning, proposed by Reid, Brown, and Wolters, have been enlightened into the following concepts and perspectives, they are:

1. Supporting the idea of students’ variety in learning has built a concept of creating the strategies in teaching and learning that are suitable with the students’ preference. It also implies that the teaching strategies should be able not only to make the students enjoy learning but also perform the learning objectives into practice. Communicative language teaching including group working can be taken as consideration.
2. Giving the positive feedback as the result of monitoring and evaluating during the teaching and learning process will make the students become motivated. The positive feedback must not always in the form of rewards, score or something like that but also appreciation. The words like “good job”, “that’s great”, or “well done” will be significantly attract the students’ motivation to be better even if they are wrong.
3. Guiding the students during a certain assignment. This includes the activities of question and answer. From the questions and answer the teacher will find out the difficulty and the students’ need. Therefore it is important to conduct self-handicapping to assist the students. Further, it will be a next step to be an autonomous learning in which the students understand what to do and how to do it.

The above strategies of changing the students’ condition from lack motivation to high motivation are beneficial to apply in the classroom activity. To sum up, Brown (2007:90) says that if the learners in the classroom are given an opportunity to do language for their own personal reasons of achieving competence and autonomy, those will have a better chance of success than if they become dependent on external rewards for their motivation.

Discussion

Classroom with a small number of students may easily managed, however, a large number of students require great attention and good class-management. During teaching learning process, most of teachers find their students talking behind them. The objectives of learning sometimes fail to achieve as the students do not get involve well. Let us see the following finding.

Figure b. the topic of students’ talk during class

A survey was conducted to investigate the students’ motivation in learning by distributing a questionnaire. The questionnaire was distributed to 460 students of the X class at MAN Banyuwangi in the 2011/ 2012 academic year. The respondents consisted of 310 female students and 150 male students. It was surprised to know that 35% students or 161 students out of 460 talked about love. They shared with their friends about their boy friends or girlfriends. In the other hand, there were only 15% or 69 students out of 460 who discussed the teachers’ assignment. Next, the respondents were asked about why they did not pay much attention to the teachers’ explanation during the class. The respondents’ answer can bee seen in the figure c below:

Figure c. the reasons why the students were talking during the class

The result of the second questions was also surprising. It was known that 40% or 184 students out of 460 students disliked the lessons in which it was likely had a correlation between the material itself and how the teacher explained it. It was reasonable because 20% or 92 students disliked the way how the teachers explained the lesson. The last question was quite interesting to discuss that was 35% or 161 students out of 460 students said they were always motivated by their teachers, but there were 25% or 115 out of 460 students felt that their teacher never motivated them. See figure d.

Figure d. The frequency of the students being motivated by the teachers

The result of the questionnaire above can become the reference of what should be done by the teachers to make a better change in teaching. The topic of what the students mostly discussed in the classroom does not actually matter as Biehler (1972) in Baharuddin (2010:149-150) points out five emotional characteristics of teenager at the age of 12 – 15 years old, they are:

1. At this age, a child tends to be introvert and cannot be guessed. It is probably caused by biological changes that are related to sexual maturation and some of them are confused to decide whether she or he is a child or adult.
2. A student may behave rudely to cover the lack of confidence.
3. The explosion of anger may happen. This is caused by a combination of psychological tension, unstable biological change, and being exhaust after too much work and other inappropriate life style.
4. A teenager tends to be intolerant to other people and correct his/ or her opinion because of lack of confidence. They argue that they have absolute answer and it is only they who know it.
5. Students of junior high school start to observe their parents and teachers more objectively and get easily angry if they are imitated by teacher who pretends to know about it.

What Biehler (1972) has mentioned above indicates what the students actually did in the classroom was normal. Love becomes the most favorite subject in the classroom was just because they experienced a sexual maturation. Next, that they disliked the lesson as well as the teacher indicates that at this emotional development phase they were able to propose reasons of abjection. A monotonous teaching method would lead them into boredom so that they likely preferred talking with their friends to listening the teacher’s explanation. In addition, being less motivated, the students would keep doing that as they never knew what they did was actually meaningless. Therefore, the last data of the questionnaire result should get much attention among teachers.

The perspective of redirecting the teacher’s motivation towards the students (extrinsic motivation) to the establishment of students’ motivation (intrinsic motivation) is very much essential to carry out the problems. As Brown (2007:89) states that delivering positive feedback in a classroom is seen by students as a validation of their own critical thinking ability, and self-fulfillment, can increase, or maintain intrinsic motivation. Thus, feedback in teaching learning process is important. In addition Reid (2009:129) classifies three types of feedback, they are:

1. Monitoring: feedback becomes a facility to monitor the students’ learning that they have to respond about what they have achieved and what they need to achieve
2. Constructive: feedback should be given to increase the motivation. starting by giving a positive comment about what they have achieved
3. Negative: this kind of feedback happens when the aim of the feedback is to evaluate the students’ work. Red ink is often used to get the students attention that they actually did something wrong

Figure e. The illustration of redirecting the extrinsic motivation to intrinsic motivation

From the above flow chart, it can be seen that the teacher becomes an important role in encouraging the students. When the students’ motivation increases, they will be able to take a decision and implement it into an action in learning so that result an autonomous learning which is important not only for cross sectional goal but also the long term goal. To sum up, Baharuddin (2010:198) says that teacher is a leader by mean that the teacher becomes a guide who watches and educates the students towards the increase of science quality and quantity.

Reference

Baharuddin. 2010. Pendidikan dan Psikologi Perkembangan. Jogjakarta: Ar-Ruzz Media

Brown, H. D. 2007.Teaching by Principles: An Interactive Approach to Language Pedagogy. New York: Pearson Longman

Dahar, R. W. 1988. Teori – Teori Belajar. Jakarta: Departemen Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan Direktorat Jendral Pendidikan Tinggi Proyek Pengembangan lembaga pendidikan tenaga kependidikan

Dornyei, Z. 2005. The Psychology of the Language Learner: Individual Differences in Second Language Acquisition. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc., Publishers

Gie, T. L. 1986. Cara Belajar yang Efisien. Yogyakarta: Pusat kemajuan studi

Hornby, A.S. 1995. Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary. Oxford: Oxford university press

Reid, G. 2009. Memotivasi Siswa di Kelas: Gagasan dan Strategi. Jakarta Barat: PT Indeks